Science, Health & Safety |
June 19, 2026 |
Environmental Hazards Compared in Summary Study
June 19, 2026
A bit of perspective on environmental hazards. Most of us are terrified by earthquakes, but the average number people injured or killed annually in the USA by earthquakes is actually small. A bit of research suggests that heat, cold, floods and other humans, not earthquakes, are the major environmental hazards facing residents of the USA.
Earthquakes | Floods | Volcanoes | Exposure | Takeaways
Earthquakes
Key Points:
Most years since 1950 have seen zero earthquake fatalities in the U.S.
The largest single-event death toll since 1950 was the 1964 Alaska earthquake, which killed approximately 115 people.
Other significant events include the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake (about 63 deaths) and the 1971 San Fernando earthquake (about 65 deaths).
Over the 75-year period from 1950 to 2025, the total number of earthquake deaths is under 400.
Estimated Average: Given the rarity of deadly earthquakes and the concentration of deaths in just a few major events, the average annual number of people killed by earthquakes in the USA since 1950 is approximately 5 or fewer per year. In many years, the number is zero; the average is only raised by a handful of large events.
Although the most often cited region experiencing earthquakes in the USA is the Pacific rim, deadly earthquakes have occurred historically in most parts of the country, though they are rare east of the Rockies.
Most years since 1950 have seen zero earthquake fatalities in the U.S.
The largest single-event death toll since 1950 was the 1964 Alaska earthquake, which killed approximately 115 people.
Other significant events include the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake (about 63 deaths) and the 1971 San Fernando earthquake (about 65 deaths).
Over the 75-year period from 1950 to 2025, the total number of earthquake deaths is under 400.
Estimated Average: Given the rarity of deadly earthquakes and the concentration of deaths in just a few major events, the average annual number of people killed by earthquakes in the USA since 1950 is approximately 5 or fewer per year. In many years, the number is zero; the average is only raised by a handful of large events.
Although the most often cited region experiencing earthquakes in the USA is the Pacific rim, deadly earthquakes have occurred historically in most parts of the country, though they are rare east of the Rockies.
Floods
What about floods? Key Facts:
Average annual flood deaths: Approximately 122 people per year have died from flooding in the USA between 1950 and 2025, based on historical data and recent trends.
Most deadly years: Catastrophic floods, such as those caused by hurricanes or flash floods, have resulted in death tolls exceeding 100 in single events (e.g., the 1972 Rapid City flood, 1976 Big Thompson Canyon flood, and recent Texas floods).
Recent trends: Flood deaths have increased in some recent years, with 145 deaths reported in 2024 and over 100 deaths in several years since 2010.
Long-term trend: The average annual death toll has ranged from about 85 to 125 in recent decades, with a historical average of about 119 per year from 1959–1991. That's about 24 times greater than the death toll from earthquakes.
Average annual flood deaths: Approximately 122 people per year have died from flooding in the USA between 1950 and 2025, based on historical data and recent trends.
Most deadly years: Catastrophic floods, such as those caused by hurricanes or flash floods, have resulted in death tolls exceeding 100 in single events (e.g., the 1972 Rapid City flood, 1976 Big Thompson Canyon flood, and recent Texas floods).
Recent trends: Flood deaths have increased in some recent years, with 145 deaths reported in 2024 and over 100 deaths in several years since 2010.
Long-term trend: The average annual death toll has ranged from about 85 to 125 in recent decades, with a historical average of about 119 per year from 1959–1991. That's about 24 times greater than the death toll from earthquakes.
Volcanoes
Does vulcanism constitute a major danger?
The most deadly volcanic event in the U.S. during this period was the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens, which resulted in 57 deaths.
No other U.S. volcanic eruption since 1950 has caused a significant number of fatalities.
Most years see zero deaths from volcanism in the United States.
The most deadly volcanic event in the U.S. during this period was the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens, which resulted in 57 deaths.
No other U.S. volcanic eruption since 1950 has caused a significant number of fatalities.
Most years see zero deaths from volcanism in the United States.
Exposure
Finally, how about simple exposure?
Deaths from Exposure to Cold and Heat in the USA (1950–2025)
Overview:
Exposure to extreme temperatures—both cold and heat—causes thousands of deaths in the United States each year. These fatalities are tracked as "cold-related" and "heat-related" deaths, with trends showing notable increases in recent years, especially for heat.
Cold-Related Deaths:
Annual cold-related deaths: Since 1979, the direct death rate from cold exposure has ranged from 1 to 2.5 deaths per million people per year, with more than 19,000 Americans dying from cold-related causes between 1979 and 2016.
Recent data: In 2023, there were 1,024 deaths attributed to excessive cold or hypothermia.
Trends: Cold-related mortality rates more than doubled between 1999 and 2022, with the majority of deaths occurring in the winter months.
Average estimate: Studies suggest that extreme cold is responsible for at least 1,300 deaths per year in the U.S., though some analyses that include indirect effects report even higher numbers.
Heat-Related Deaths:
Annual heat-related deaths: Between 1979 and 2022, the direct death rate from heat exposure generally hovered between 0.5 and 2 deaths per million people per year, with more than 14,000 Americans dying directly from heat-related causes in that span.
Recent data: In 2023, a record 2,325 deaths were attributed to heat, reflecting a 117% increase in heat-related deaths since 1999.
Average estimate: The annual average of heat-related deaths was about 702 per year from 2004–2018, but recent years have seen much higher numbers, with some studies estimating around 10,000 deaths annually when indirect effects are included.
Trends: Heat-related deaths have more than doubled since 1999, with the sharpest increases occurring since 2016.
Deaths from Exposure to Cold and Heat in the USA (1950–2025)
Overview:
Exposure to extreme temperatures—both cold and heat—causes thousands of deaths in the United States each year. These fatalities are tracked as "cold-related" and "heat-related" deaths, with trends showing notable increases in recent years, especially for heat.
Cold-Related Deaths:
Annual cold-related deaths: Since 1979, the direct death rate from cold exposure has ranged from 1 to 2.5 deaths per million people per year, with more than 19,000 Americans dying from cold-related causes between 1979 and 2016.
Recent data: In 2023, there were 1,024 deaths attributed to excessive cold or hypothermia.
Trends: Cold-related mortality rates more than doubled between 1999 and 2022, with the majority of deaths occurring in the winter months.
Average estimate: Studies suggest that extreme cold is responsible for at least 1,300 deaths per year in the U.S., though some analyses that include indirect effects report even higher numbers.
Heat-Related Deaths:
Annual heat-related deaths: Between 1979 and 2022, the direct death rate from heat exposure generally hovered between 0.5 and 2 deaths per million people per year, with more than 14,000 Americans dying directly from heat-related causes in that span.
Recent data: In 2023, a record 2,325 deaths were attributed to heat, reflecting a 117% increase in heat-related deaths since 1999.
Average estimate: The annual average of heat-related deaths was about 702 per year from 2004–2018, but recent years have seen much higher numbers, with some studies estimating around 10,000 deaths annually when indirect effects are included.
Trends: Heat-related deaths have more than doubled since 1999, with the sharpest increases occurring since 2016.
Listen to your mom
Key Takeaways: Cold exposure has historically caused more direct deaths than heat, but heat-related deaths are rapidly increasing and now rival or surpass cold in some recent years.
Both cold and heat deaths are likely undercounted due to limitations in death certificate reporting and indirect effects not always being attributed to temperature extremes.
Vulnerable populations—such as the elderly, those with chronic illnesses, and people without adequate shelter—are at greatest risk from both cold and heat exposure.
In summary: Simple exposure to cold and heat has killed thousands of Americans annually since 1950, with cold historically leading but heat-related deaths rising sharply in recent years, especially during record-setting heat waves. Other causes, such as vulcanism, earthquake and even floods pale in comparison.
Among other causes, persons in the USA are more likely in any given year to die of combined effects of alcoholism and related disease (over 100,000), gunshot wounds inflicted by onself or a friend or loved one (around 40,000), automobile accidents (recently around 45,000), house fires (2000 to 4000 last fifty years), and other accidents. Listen to your mom: Don't drink, drive and shoot people.
Both cold and heat deaths are likely undercounted due to limitations in death certificate reporting and indirect effects not always being attributed to temperature extremes.
Vulnerable populations—such as the elderly, those with chronic illnesses, and people without adequate shelter—are at greatest risk from both cold and heat exposure.
In summary: Simple exposure to cold and heat has killed thousands of Americans annually since 1950, with cold historically leading but heat-related deaths rising sharply in recent years, especially during record-setting heat waves. Other causes, such as vulcanism, earthquake and even floods pale in comparison.
Among other causes, persons in the USA are more likely in any given year to die of combined effects of alcoholism and related disease (over 100,000), gunshot wounds inflicted by onself or a friend or loved one (around 40,000), automobile accidents (recently around 45,000), house fires (2000 to 4000 last fifty years), and other accidents. Listen to your mom: Don't drink, drive and shoot people.
* The Big One
According to Encyclopedia Britanica, Shaanxi province earthquake of 1556, massive earthquake in Shaanxi province in northern China, believed to be the deadliest earthquake ever recorded.
The earthquake (estimated at magnitude 8) struck Shaanxi and neighbouring Shanxi province to the east early on Jan. 23, 1556, killing or injuring an estimated 830,000 people. This massive death toll is thought to have reduced the population of the two provinces by about 60 percent. Local annals (which date to 1177 BCE) place the epicentre of the earthquake around Huaxian in Shaanxi. These annals, which record 26 other destructive earthquakes in the province, describe the destruction caused by the 1556 earthquake in a level of vivid detail that is unique among these records. Though the quake lasted only seconds, it leveled mountains, altered the path of rivers, caused massive flooding, and ignited fires that burned for days.
The local records indicate that, in addition to inspiring searches for the causes of earthquakes, this particular quake led the people in the region affected to search for ways to minimize the damage caused by such catastrophic natural disasters. Many of the casualties in the quake were people who had been crushed by falling buildings. Thus, in the aftermath of the 1556 quake, many of the stone buildings that had been leveled were replaced with buildings made of softer, more earthquake-resistant materials, such as bamboo and wood.
The 1556 Shaanxi earthquake is associated with three major faults, which form the boundaries of the Wei River basin. All 26 of the earthquakes recorded in the annals had epicentres in this basin.
The earthquake (estimated at magnitude 8) struck Shaanxi and neighbouring Shanxi province to the east early on Jan. 23, 1556, killing or injuring an estimated 830,000 people. This massive death toll is thought to have reduced the population of the two provinces by about 60 percent. Local annals (which date to 1177 BCE) place the epicentre of the earthquake around Huaxian in Shaanxi. These annals, which record 26 other destructive earthquakes in the province, describe the destruction caused by the 1556 earthquake in a level of vivid detail that is unique among these records. Though the quake lasted only seconds, it leveled mountains, altered the path of rivers, caused massive flooding, and ignited fires that burned for days.
The local records indicate that, in addition to inspiring searches for the causes of earthquakes, this particular quake led the people in the region affected to search for ways to minimize the damage caused by such catastrophic natural disasters. Many of the casualties in the quake were people who had been crushed by falling buildings. Thus, in the aftermath of the 1556 quake, many of the stone buildings that had been leveled were replaced with buildings made of softer, more earthquake-resistant materials, such as bamboo and wood.
The 1556 Shaanxi earthquake is associated with three major faults, which form the boundaries of the Wei River basin. All 26 of the earthquakes recorded in the annals had epicentres in this basin.
Sources
Research facilitated by Perplexity, Britannica.
